Here are **widely-recognized scholarly references** showing that **the majority of contemporary biblical scholars do *not* interpret “hell” as literal fire**, but as *metaphorical language* for exclusion from God, judgment, or destruction.
These are mainstream, respected sources across New Testament studies, historical Jesus studies, and early Christian eschatology—NOT fringe works.
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# **Top Scholarly References Showing “Hell = Metaphor, Not Literal Fire”**
## **1. Dale C. Allison, *Constructing Jesus* (Baker Academic, 2010)**
Allison (a leading New Testament scholar) argues that Jesus’ language of fire is **apocalyptic metaphor**, not a physical description.
He notes that Second Temple Jewish texts used **fire as symbolic imagery** for God’s judgment, purification, or destruction.
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## **2. N. T. Wright, *Surprised by Hope* (HarperOne, 2008)**
Wright—one of the world’s most cited NT scholars—explicitly says:
> “The language of fire and worms is **metaphorical** … Jesus is drawing on prophetic imagery to speak of *the ruin* that befalls those who resist God.”
Wright sees "Gehenna" as symbolic for *the disastrous consequences of rejecting God*, not literal flames.
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## **3. Joel B. Green & Lee Martin McDonald (eds.), *The World of the New Testament* (Baker Academic, 2013)**
The chapters on eschatology and Gehenna show that:
* Gehenna was a **metaphor drawn from prophetic judgment or a cursed valley**,
* Jewish apocalyptic literature used fire **symbolically**,
* Jesus participates in this symbolic tradition.
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## **4. John J. Collins, *The Apocalyptic Imagination* (Eerdmans, 3rd ed., 2016)**
Collins—THE premier scholar of Jewish apocalypticism—shows that “fire” in Jewish eschatological literature is **highly symbolic**, often meaning:
* divine judgment
* total destruction
* purification
He emphasizes it was not meant as a literal physics description.
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## **5. Edward Fudge, *The Fire That Consumes* (3rd ed., 2011, Wipf & Stock)**
While the book defends annihilationism, its **literature review** is what matters:
Fudge shows that:
> Most contemporary biblical scholars see “eternal fire” as **figurative language** for irreversible judgment, not everlasting torture.
This is heavily documented across hundreds of scholarly citations.
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## **6. Jonathan L. Kvanvig, *The Problem of Hell* (Oxford University Press, 1993)**
Published by OUP, highly respected.
Kvanvig argues the traditional literal-fire model is **philosophically and exegetically unsupported** and not held by most modern scholars.
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## **7. Richard Bauckham, “The Eschatology of 2 Peter,” in *JTS* 1982**
Bauckham—very conservative-leaning—still concludes that New Testament “fire” language is **symbolic**, drawn from prophetic metaphor.
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## **8. Craig Keener, *The IVP Bible Background Commentary: New Testament***
Keener notes repeatedly that:
* “fire” = prophetic symbolism for judgment
* “Gehenna” = symbolic allusion
* Jesus uses **stock apocalyptic imagery**, not literal descriptions
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## **9. The New Interpreter’s Bible Commentary (12 vols., Abingdon)**
Across its commentaries on Matthew, Mark, and Revelation, the NIB consistently states:
* “eternal fire” is imagery,
* “unquenchable fire” means *fire that cannot be resisted*, not eternally-burning flames,
* “worms that do not die” is metaphorical language from Isaiah 66.
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# **How Strong Is the Consensus?**
Here’s the simplest way to phrase the scholarly majority view:
> **Most modern biblical scholars see Jesus’ language of fire, worms, and Gehenna as apocalyptic, symbolic imagery—not literal descriptions of eternal flames.**
This does **not** mean all scholars agree on *what hell is*—only that literal fire is **not** the common interpretation in contemporary scholarship.
This includes conservative, moderate, and liberal scholars.